
Sense and Avoid in UAS Research and Applications
by Angelov, PlamenBuy New
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Summary
Author Biography
Plamen Parvanov Angelov, Lancaster University, UK
Plamen Parvanov is a senior lecturer in the School of Computing and Communications at Lancaster University. He is an Associate Editor of three international journals and the founding co-Editor-in-Chief of the Springer journal Evolving Systems. He is also the Vice Chair of the Technical Committee on Standards, Computational Intelligence Society, IEEE and co-Chair of several IEEE conferences. His research in UAV/UAS is often publicised in external publications, e.g. the prestigious Computational Intelligence Magazine; Aviation Week, Flight Global, Airframer, Flight International, etc. His research focuses on computational intelligence and evolving systems, and his research in to autonomous systems has received worldwide recognition. As the Principle Investigator at Lancaster University for a team working on UAV Sense and Avoid fortwo projects of ASTRAEA his work was recognised by 'The Engineer Innovation and Technology 2008 Award in two categories: i) Aerospace and Defence and ii) The Special Award which is an outstanding achievement.
Table of Contents
Preface | p. xv |
About the Editor | p. xix |
About the Contributors | p. xxi |
Introduction | |
Introduction | p. 3 |
UAV versus UAS | p. 3 |
Historical Perspective on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles | p. 5 |
UAV Classification | p. 9 |
UAV Applications | p. 14 |
UAS Market Overview | p. 17 |
UAS Future Challenges | p. 20 |
Fault Tolerance for UAS | p. 26 |
References | p. 31 |
Performance Tradeoffs and the Development of Standards | p. 35 |
Scope of Sense and Avoid | p. 35 |
System Configurations | p. 36 |
S&A Services and Sub-functions | p. 38 |
Sensor Capabilities | p. 39 |
Airborne Sensing | p. 39 |
Ground-Based Sensing | p. 41 |
Sensor Parameters | p. 41 |
Tracking and Trajectory Prediction | p. 42 |
Threat Declaration and Resolution Decisions | p. 43 |
Collision Avoidance | p. 43 |
Self-separation | p. 45 |
Human Decision versus Algorithm | p. 45 |
Sense and Avoid Timeline | p. 46 |
Safety Assessment | p. 48 |
Modeling and Simulation | p. 49 |
Human Factors | p. 50 |
Standards Process | p. 51 |
Description | p. 51 |
Operational and Functional Requirements | p. 52 |
Architecture | p. 52 |
Safety, Performance, and Interoperability Assessments | p. 52 |
Performance Requirements | p. 52 |
Validation | p. 53 |
Conclusion | p. 54 |
References | p. 54 |
Integration of SAA Capabilities into a UAS Distributed Architecture for Civil Applications | p. 55 |
Introduction | p. 55 |
System Overview | p. 57 |
Distributed System Architecture | p. 58 |
USAL Concept and Structure | p. 59 |
Flight and Mission Services | p. 61 |
Air Segment | p. 61 |
Ground Segment | p. 65 |
Awareness Category at USAL Architecture | p. 68 |
Preflight Operational Procedures: Flight Dispatcher | p. 70 |
USAL SAA on Airfield Operations | p. 72 |
Awareness Category during UAS Mission | p. 75 |
Conclusions | p. 82 |
Acknowledgments | p. 82 |
References | p. 82 |
Regulatory Issues and Human Factors | |
Regulations and Requirements | p. 87 |
Background Information | p. 88 |
Flight Rules | p. 90 |
Airspace Classes | p. 91 |
Types of UAS and their Missions | p. 93 |
Safety Levels | p. 96 |
Existing Regulations and Standards | p. 97 |
Current Certification Mechanisms for UAS | p. 99 |
Standardization Bodies and Safety Agencies | p. 102 |
Sense and Avoid Requirements | p. 103 |
General Sense Requirements | p. 103 |
General Avoidance Requirements | p. 106 |
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Airspace Class | p. 108 |
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Flight Altitude and Visibility Conditions | p. 109 |
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Type of Communications Relay | p. 110 |
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Automation Level of the UAS | p. 111 |
Human Factors and Situational Awareness Considerations | p. 112 |
Conclusions | p. 113 |
Acknowledgments | p. 114 |
References | p. 115 |
Human Factors in UAV | p. 119 |
Introduction | p. 119 |
Teleoperation of UAVs | p. 122 |
Control of Multiple Unmanned Vehicles | p. 123 |
Task-Switching | p. 124 |
Multimodal Interaction with Unmanned Vehicles | p. 127 |
Adaptive Automation | p. 128 |
Automation and Multitasking | p. 129 |
Individual Differences | p. 131 |
Attentional Control and Automation | p. 131 |
Spatial Ability | p. 134 |
Sense of Direction | p. 135 |
Video Games Experience | p. 135 |
Conclusions | p. 136 |
References | p. 137 |
SAA Methodologies | |
Sense and Avoid Concepts: Vehicle-Based SAA Systems (Vehicle-to-Vehicle) | p. 145 |
Introduction | p. 145 |
Conflict Detection and Resolution Principles | p. 146 |
Sensing | p. 146 |
Trajectory Prediction | p. 147 |
Conflict Detection | p. 148 |
Conflict Resolution | p. 149 |
Evasion Maneuvers | p. 150 |
Categorization of Conflict Detection and Resolution Approaches | p. 150 |
Taxonomy | p. 150 |
Rule-Based Methods | p. 151 |
Game Theory Methods | p. 152 |
Field Methods | p. 153 |
Geometric Methods | p. 154 |
Numerical Optimization Approaches | p. 156 |
Combined Methods | p. 158 |
Multi-agent Methods | p. 160 |
Other Methods | p. 163 |
Acknowledgments | p. 166 |
References | p. 166 |
UAS Conflict Detection and Resolution Using Differential Geometry Concepts | p. 175 |
Introduction | p. 175 |
Differential Geometry Kinematics | p. 177 |
Conflict Detection | p. 178 |
Collision Kinematics | p. 178 |
Collision Detection | p. 180 |
Conflict Resolution: Approach I | p. 182 |
Collision Kinematics | p. 183 |
Resolution Guidance | p. 186 |
Analysis and Extension | p. 188 |
Conflict Resolution: Approach II | p. 191 |
Resolution Kinematics and Analysis | p. 192 |
Resolution Guidance | p. 193 |
CD&R Simulation | p. 195 |
Simulation Results: Approach I | p. 195 |
Simulation Results: Approach II | p. 199 |
Conclusions | p. 200 |
References | p. 203 |
Aircraft Separation Management Using Common Information Network SAA | p. 205 |
Introduction | p. 205 |
CIN Sense and Avoid Requirements | p. 208 |
Automated Separation Management on a CIN | p. 212 |
Elements of Automated Aircraft Separation | p. 212 |
Grid-Based Separation Automation | p. 214 |
Genetic-Based Separation Automation | p. 214 |
Emerging Systems-Based Separation Automation | p. 216 |
Smart Skies Implementation | p. 217 |
Smart Skies Background | p. 217 |
Flight Test Assets | p. 217 |
Communication Architecture | p. 219 |
Messaging System | p. 221 |
Automated Separation Implementation | p. 223 |
Smart Skies Implementation Summary | p. 223 |
Example SAA on a ON- Flight Test Results | p. 224 |
Summary and Future Developments | p. 229 |
Acknowledgments | p. 231 |
References | p. 231 |
SAA Applications | |
AgentFly: Scalable, High-Fidelity Framework for Simulation, Planning and Collision Avoidance of Multiple UAVs | p. 235 |
Agent-Based Architecture | p. 236 |
UAV Agents | p. 237 |
Environment Simulation Agents | p. 237 |
Visio Agents | p. 238 |
Airplane Control Concept | p. 238 |
Flight Trajectory Planner | p. 241 |
Collision Avoidance | p. 245 |
Multi-layer Collision Avoidance Architecture | p. 246 |
Cooperative Collision Avoidance | p. 247 |
Non-cooperative Collision Avoidance | p. 250 |
Team Coordination | p. 252 |
Scalable Simulation | p. 256 |
Deployment to Fixed-Wing UAV | p. 260 |
Acknowledgments | p. 263 |
References | p. 263 |
See and Avoid Using Onboard Computer Vision | p. 265 |
Introduction | p. 265 |
Background | p. 265 |
Outline of the SAA Problem | p. 265 |
State-of-the-Art | p. 266 |
Visual-EO Airborne Collision Detection | p. 268 |
Image Capture | p. 268 |
Camera Model | p. 269 |
Image Stabilization | p. 269 |
Image Jitter | p. 269 |
Jitter Compensation Techniques | p. 270 |
Detection and Tracking | p. 272 |
Two-Stage Detection Approach | p. 272 |
Target Tracking | p. 278 |
Target Dynamics and Avoidance Control | p. 278 |
Estimation of Target Bearing | p. 278 |
Bearing-Based Avoidance Control | p. 279 |
Hardware Technology and Platform Integration | p. 281 |
Target/Intruder Platforms | p. 281 |
Camera Platforms | p. 282 |
Sensor Pod | p. 286 |
Real-Time Image Processing | p. 288 |
Flight Testing | p. 289 |
Test Phase Results | p. 290 |
Future Work | p. 290 |
Conclusions | p. 291 |
Acknowledgements | p. 291 |
References | p. 291 |
The Use of Low-Cost Mobile Radar Systems for Small UAS Sense and Avoid | p. 295 |
Introduction | p. 295 |
The UAS Operating Environment | p. 297 |
Why Use a UAS? | p. 297 |
Airspace and Radio Carriage | p. 297 |
See-and-Avoid | p. 297 |
Midair Collisions | p. 298 |
Summary | p. 299 |
Sense and Avoid and Collision Avoidance | p. 300 |
A Layered Approach to Avoiding Collisions | p. 300 |
SAA Technologies | p. 300 |
The UA Operating Volume | p. 303 |
Situation Awareness | p. 304 |
Summary | p. 304 |
Case Study: The Smart Skies Project | p. 305 |
Introduction | p. 305 |
Smart Skies Architecture | p. 305 |
The Mobile Aircraft Tracking System | p. 307 |
The Airborne Systems Laboratory | p. 310 |
The Flamingo UAS | p. 311 |
Automated Dynamic Airspace Controller | p. 311 |
Summary | p. 312 |
Case Study: Flight Test Results | p. 312 |
Radar Characterisation Experiments | p. 312 |
Sense and Avoid Experiments | p. 319 |
Automated Sense and Avoid | p. 324 |
Dynamic Sense and Avoid Experiments | p. 326 |
Tracking a Variety of Aircraft | p. 326 |
Weather Monitoring | p. 331 |
The Future | p. 332 |
Conclusion | p. 333 |
Acknowledgements | p. 333 |
References | p. 334 |
Epilogue | p. 337 |
Index | p. 339 |
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