Sense and Avoid in UAS Research and Applications

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Edition: 1st
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2012-04-30
Publisher(s): Wiley
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Summary

State-of-the-art in research in this challenging yet crucial and topical field, addressing the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety. Sense and avoid systems are a key technology in the fastest growing field of aircraft development - unmanned aircraft systems. Sense and Avoid in UAS: Research and Applications addresses the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety. Encompassing the state-of-the-art in research in this challenging yet crucial and topical field, it isauthored by leading practitioners and researchers from three different continents worldwide working on multi-million research programmes such as ASTRAEA. Highly original, it fulfils the current gap in the published literature on sense and avoid covering views and analyses from sensing to guidance to human factors to regulatory issues. The authors assume some basic knowledge of aviation navigation and aerodynamics, but address principles rather than complex mathematics. Addresses the challenges associated with sense and avoid systems in UASs/ UAVs in their complexity and entirety Fulfils the current gap in published literature on sense and avoid Covers views and analyses from sensing to guidance to human factors to regulatory issues Authored by leading researchers as well as industry practitioners worldwide.

Author Biography

Plamen Parvanov Angelov, Lancaster University, UK
Plamen Parvanov is a senior lecturer in the School of Computing and Communications at Lancaster University. He is an Associate Editor of three international journals and the founding co-Editor-in-Chief of the Springer journal Evolving Systems. He is also the Vice Chair of the Technical Committee on Standards, Computational Intelligence Society, IEEE and co-Chair of several IEEE conferences. His research in UAV/UAS is often publicised in external publications, e.g. the prestigious Computational Intelligence Magazine; Aviation Week, Flight Global, Airframer, Flight International, etc. His research focuses on computational intelligence and evolving systems, and his research in to autonomous systems has received worldwide recognition. As the Principle Investigator at Lancaster University for a team working on UAV Sense and Avoid fortwo projects of ASTRAEA his work was recognised by 'The Engineer Innovation and Technology 2008 Award in two categories: i) Aerospace and Defence and ii) The Special Award which is an outstanding achievement.

Table of Contents

Prefacep. xv
About the Editorp. xix
About the Contributorsp. xxi
Introduction
Introductionp. 3
UAV versus UASp. 3
Historical Perspective on Unmanned Aerial Vehiclesp. 5
UAV Classificationp. 9
UAV Applicationsp. 14
UAS Market Overviewp. 17
UAS Future Challengesp. 20
Fault Tolerance for UASp. 26
Referencesp. 31
Performance Tradeoffs and the Development of Standardsp. 35
Scope of Sense and Avoidp. 35
System Configurationsp. 36
S&A Services and Sub-functionsp. 38
Sensor Capabilitiesp. 39
Airborne Sensingp. 39
Ground-Based Sensingp. 41
Sensor Parametersp. 41
Tracking and Trajectory Predictionp. 42
Threat Declaration and Resolution Decisionsp. 43
Collision Avoidancep. 43
Self-separationp. 45
Human Decision versus Algorithmp. 45
Sense and Avoid Timelinep. 46
Safety Assessmentp. 48
Modeling and Simulationp. 49
Human Factorsp. 50
Standards Processp. 51
Descriptionp. 51
Operational and Functional Requirementsp. 52
Architecturep. 52
Safety, Performance, and Interoperability Assessmentsp. 52
Performance Requirementsp. 52
Validationp. 53
Conclusionp. 54
Referencesp. 54
Integration of SAA Capabilities into a UAS Distributed Architecture for Civil Applicationsp. 55
Introductionp. 55
System Overviewp. 57
Distributed System Architecturep. 58
USAL Concept and Structurep. 59
Flight and Mission Servicesp. 61
Air Segmentp. 61
Ground Segmentp. 65
Awareness Category at USAL Architecturep. 68
Preflight Operational Procedures: Flight Dispatcherp. 70
USAL SAA on Airfield Operationsp. 72
Awareness Category during UAS Missionp. 75
Conclusionsp. 82
Acknowledgmentsp. 82
Referencesp. 82
Regulatory Issues and Human Factors
Regulations and Requirementsp. 87
Background Informationp. 88
Flight Rulesp. 90
Airspace Classesp. 91
Types of UAS and their Missionsp. 93
Safety Levelsp. 96
Existing Regulations and Standardsp. 97
Current Certification Mechanisms for UASp. 99
Standardization Bodies and Safety Agenciesp. 102
Sense and Avoid Requirementsp. 103
General Sense Requirementsp. 103
General Avoidance Requirementsp. 106
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Airspace Classp. 108
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Flight Altitude and Visibility Conditionsp. 109
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Type of Communications Relayp. 110
Possible SAA Requirements as a Function of the Automation Level of the UASp. 111
Human Factors and Situational Awareness Considerationsp. 112
Conclusionsp. 113
Acknowledgmentsp. 114
Referencesp. 115
Human Factors in UAVp. 119
Introductionp. 119
Teleoperation of UAVsp. 122
Control of Multiple Unmanned Vehiclesp. 123
Task-Switchingp. 124
Multimodal Interaction with Unmanned Vehiclesp. 127
Adaptive Automationp. 128
Automation and Multitaskingp. 129
Individual Differencesp. 131
Attentional Control and Automationp. 131
Spatial Abilityp. 134
Sense of Directionp. 135
Video Games Experiencep. 135
Conclusionsp. 136
Referencesp. 137
SAA Methodologies
Sense and Avoid Concepts: Vehicle-Based SAA Systems (Vehicle-to-Vehicle)p. 145
Introductionp. 145
Conflict Detection and Resolution Principlesp. 146
Sensingp. 146
Trajectory Predictionp. 147
Conflict Detectionp. 148
Conflict Resolutionp. 149
Evasion Maneuversp. 150
Categorization of Conflict Detection and Resolution Approachesp. 150
Taxonomyp. 150
Rule-Based Methodsp. 151
Game Theory Methodsp. 152
Field Methodsp. 153
Geometric Methodsp. 154
Numerical Optimization Approachesp. 156
Combined Methodsp. 158
Multi-agent Methodsp. 160
Other Methodsp. 163
Acknowledgmentsp. 166
Referencesp. 166
UAS Conflict Detection and Resolution Using Differential Geometry Conceptsp. 175
Introductionp. 175
Differential Geometry Kinematicsp. 177
Conflict Detectionp. 178
Collision Kinematicsp. 178
Collision Detectionp. 180
Conflict Resolution: Approach Ip. 182
Collision Kinematicsp. 183
Resolution Guidancep. 186
Analysis and Extensionp. 188
Conflict Resolution: Approach IIp. 191
Resolution Kinematics and Analysisp. 192
Resolution Guidancep. 193
CD&R Simulationp. 195
Simulation Results: Approach Ip. 195
Simulation Results: Approach IIp. 199
Conclusionsp. 200
Referencesp. 203
Aircraft Separation Management Using Common Information Network SAAp. 205
Introductionp. 205
CIN Sense and Avoid Requirementsp. 208
Automated Separation Management on a CINp. 212
Elements of Automated Aircraft Separationp. 212
Grid-Based Separation Automationp. 214
Genetic-Based Separation Automationp. 214
Emerging Systems-Based Separation Automationp. 216
Smart Skies Implementationp. 217
Smart Skies Backgroundp. 217
Flight Test Assetsp. 217
Communication Architecturep. 219
Messaging Systemp. 221
Automated Separation Implementationp. 223
Smart Skies Implementation Summaryp. 223
Example SAA on a ON- Flight Test Resultsp. 224
Summary and Future Developmentsp. 229
Acknowledgmentsp. 231
Referencesp. 231
SAA Applications
AgentFly: Scalable, High-Fidelity Framework for Simulation, Planning and Collision Avoidance of Multiple UAVsp. 235
Agent-Based Architecturep. 236
UAV Agentsp. 237
Environment Simulation Agentsp. 237
Visio Agentsp. 238
Airplane Control Conceptp. 238
Flight Trajectory Plannerp. 241
Collision Avoidancep. 245
Multi-layer Collision Avoidance Architecturep. 246
Cooperative Collision Avoidancep. 247
Non-cooperative Collision Avoidancep. 250
Team Coordinationp. 252
Scalable Simulationp. 256
Deployment to Fixed-Wing UAVp. 260
Acknowledgmentsp. 263
Referencesp. 263
See and Avoid Using Onboard Computer Visionp. 265
Introductionp. 265
Backgroundp. 265
Outline of the SAA Problemp. 265
State-of-the-Artp. 266
Visual-EO Airborne Collision Detectionp. 268
Image Capturep. 268
Camera Modelp. 269
Image Stabilizationp. 269
Image Jitterp. 269
Jitter Compensation Techniquesp. 270
Detection and Trackingp. 272
Two-Stage Detection Approachp. 272
Target Trackingp. 278
Target Dynamics and Avoidance Controlp. 278
Estimation of Target Bearingp. 278
Bearing-Based Avoidance Controlp. 279
Hardware Technology and Platform Integrationp. 281
Target/Intruder Platformsp. 281
Camera Platformsp. 282
Sensor Podp. 286
Real-Time Image Processingp. 288
Flight Testingp. 289
Test Phase Resultsp. 290
Future Workp. 290
Conclusionsp. 291
Acknowledgementsp. 291
Referencesp. 291
The Use of Low-Cost Mobile Radar Systems for Small UAS Sense and Avoidp. 295
Introductionp. 295
The UAS Operating Environmentp. 297
Why Use a UAS?p. 297
Airspace and Radio Carriagep. 297
See-and-Avoidp. 297
Midair Collisionsp. 298
Summaryp. 299
Sense and Avoid and Collision Avoidancep. 300
A Layered Approach to Avoiding Collisionsp. 300
SAA Technologiesp. 300
The UA Operating Volumep. 303
Situation Awarenessp. 304
Summaryp. 304
Case Study: The Smart Skies Projectp. 305
Introductionp. 305
Smart Skies Architecturep. 305
The Mobile Aircraft Tracking Systemp. 307
The Airborne Systems Laboratoryp. 310
The Flamingo UASp. 311
Automated Dynamic Airspace Controllerp. 311
Summaryp. 312
Case Study: Flight Test Resultsp. 312
Radar Characterisation Experimentsp. 312
Sense and Avoid Experimentsp. 319
Automated Sense and Avoidp. 324
Dynamic Sense and Avoid Experimentsp. 326
Tracking a Variety of Aircraftp. 326
Weather Monitoringp. 331
The Futurep. 332
Conclusionp. 333
Acknowledgementsp. 333
Referencesp. 334
Epiloguep. 337
Indexp. 339
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