| Foreword |
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xi | |
| Preface |
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xiii | |
| Introduction: an historical background |
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1 | (4) |
| Chapter 1. The myrmecochorous syndrome |
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5 | (20) |
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5 | (1) |
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2. The concept of the myrmecochorous syndrome |
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6 | (1) |
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3. Mechanisms of ant attraction |
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6 | (10) |
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3.1 Diversity of elaiosomes |
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7 | (2) |
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3.2. Elaiosomes originating from seed tissues |
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9 | (2) |
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3.3. Elaiosomes originating from fruit tissues |
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11 | (2) |
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3.4. Chemical composition of elaiosomes |
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13 | (1) |
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3.5. Elaiosome compounds attracting ants |
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13 | (2) |
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3.6. Effect of diaspore and elaiosome dimensions on diaspore attractiveness for ants |
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15 | (1) |
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4. Diaspore deposition into microsites frequently visited by ants |
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16 | (3) |
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5. Synchronisation of the plant fruiting periods with periods of ant activity |
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19 | (2) |
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6. Supplementary assimilating organs |
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21 | (1) |
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7. The myrmecochorous syndrome in facultative myrmecochores |
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22 | (1) |
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8. Other examples of ant-plant relationships |
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22 | (1) |
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9. The myrmecochorous syndrome and criteria of myrmecochory |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
| Chapter 2. Diaspore removal by ants |
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25 | (12) |
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1. «Cafeteria» experiments |
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25 | (1) |
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2. Morphology of diaspores of myrmecochorous plants |
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26 | (2) |
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3. Removal rates of elaiosome-bearing seeds by Formica polyctena workers |
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28 | (1) |
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4. Removal rates of seeds by the ant species complex of the forest |
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28 | (3) |
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5. Do ants prefer seeds of particular plant species? |
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31 | (1) |
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6. Do ants select seeds with the largest elaiosomes? |
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32 | (2) |
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7. Are there differences in the body size of ant workers which remove seeds of different plant species? |
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34 | (2) |
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36 | (1) |
| Chapter 3. Factors influencing diaspore removal |
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37 | (16) |
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1. Effect of the diaspore :size in Corydalis bulbosa and Corydalis cava |
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37 | (2) |
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1.1. Morphology and anatomy of diaspores |
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38 | (1) |
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1.2. Removal rates of seeds |
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38 | (1) |
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2. Effect of elaiosome, diaspore body, and their contents |
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39 | (7) |
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40 | (3) |
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2.1.1. Corydalis cava seeds |
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40 | (1) |
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2.1.2. Pulmonaria obscura erems |
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41 | (2) |
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2.2. Experiments with diaspores and juices from elaiosomes and diaspore bodies |
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43 | (3) |
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2.2.1. Corydalis cava seeds |
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44 | (1) |
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2.2.2. Pulmonaria obscura erems |
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44 | (1) |
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2.2.3. Diaspore structures that attract ants |
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45 | (1) |
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3. Effect of diaspore aggregation |
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46 | (4) |
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3.1. Cafeteria experiments with different degrees of seed aggregation in the depot |
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47 | (2) |
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3.2. Diaspore aggregation in obligate and facultative myrmecochores |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (3) |
| Chapter 4. Effect of the ant species complex on diaspore removal |
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53 | (18) |
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1. Visits to seed depots by ant foragers and seed removal |
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54 | (5) |
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1.1 Total seed removal at different microsites |
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54 | (4) |
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1.2. Contribution of different ant species to seed removal |
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58 | (2) |
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1.2.1. Formica polyctena territory |
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58 | (1) |
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1.2.2. Myrmica rubra territory |
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58 | (1) |
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1.2.3. Lasius fuliginosus territory |
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58 | (1) |
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2. Microsite quality for the myrmecochore |
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59 | (1) |
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3. Elaiosome consumption and seed removal |
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60 | (4) |
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3.1. Duration of seed manipulation by ants |
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60 | (1) |
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3.2. Number of seeds probed by ants prior to removal |
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61 | (1) |
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3.3. Elaiosome consumption |
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62 | (1) |
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3.4. Interactions between workers of different ant species at seed depots |
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63 | (1) |
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4. Effect of ant recruitment behaviour and learning on seed removal |
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64 | (4) |
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4.1. Mark-recapture experiments |
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64 | (3) |
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4.2. Recruitment and learning in ants and seed removal rates |
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67 | (1) |
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68 | (3) |
| Chapter 5. Diaspore transporting by ants |
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71 | (12) |
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1. Methods of diaspore transporting |
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72 | (2) |
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2. Diaspore dropping during transport |
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74 | (1) |
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3. Dependence of diaspore dropping on the ant worker size |
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75 | (2) |
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4. Effect of diaspore-dropping on dispersal distance |
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77 | (4) |
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4.1 Complex of factors used in the computer model |
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77 | (1) |
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77 | (4) |
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81 | (2) |
| Chapter 6. Seed flow in ant territories |
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83 | (14) |
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1. Direct observations of the seed flow |
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84 | (1) |
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85 | (5) |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (1) |
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3. Effect of ant workers on the vegetation |
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90 | (1) |
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4. Seed flow in the territory of the Formica polyctena colony |
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91 | (3) |
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4.1. Diaspore concentration in ant nests |
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91 | (1) |
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4.2. Flow of diaspores of myrmecochores |
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91 | (2) |
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4.3. Flow of diaspores of non-myrmecochores |
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93 | (1) |
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94 | (3) |
| Chapter 7. Secondary relocation of diaspores from ant nests |
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97 | (14) |
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1. Composition of mature plants and seedlings in various microsites |
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98 | (5) |
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98 | (1) |
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98 | (3) |
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1.3. Effect of ants on the distribution of plants in the forest |
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101 | (2) |
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2. Plant species composition of the soil seed pools at various microsites |
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103 | (3) |
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3. Distribution of diaspores within territories of ant colonies |
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106 | (2) |
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3.1. Diaspore flow within territories of colonies of Formica polyctena and Lasins fuliginosus ants |
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106 | (1) |
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3.2. Effect of ant behaviour on the distribution of diaspores |
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107 | (1) |
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3.3. Advantages for plants from the secondary relocation of diaspores |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (3) |
| Chapter 8. Comparative analysis of plant dispersal systems by ants: diaspore concentration and redistribution |
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111 | (12) |
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1. Variables used for simulation |
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111 | (2) |
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2. What proportion of diaspores reaches ant nests? |
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113 | (1) |
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3. Comparison of systems of diaspore dispersal by ants |
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114 | (4) |
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3.1. Dispersal without secondary relocation of diaspores |
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114 | (3) |
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3.2. Dispersal with secondary relocation of diaspores |
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117 | (1) |
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4. Analysis of diaspore dispersal systems |
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118 | (4) |
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122 | (1) |
| Chapter 9. Ecological implications of myrmecochory |
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123 | (20) |
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1. Selective advantages of myrmecochory |
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123 | (3) |
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1.1. Hypotheses of selective advantages of myrmecochory |
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123 | (3) |
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1.1.1. Hypothesis of the nest environment |
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123 | (1) |
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1.1.2. Hypothesis of diaspore escape from predators |
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124 | (1) |
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1.1.3. Competition avoidance hypothesis |
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124 | (1) |
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1.1.4. Fire escape hypothesis |
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125 | (1) |
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1.1.5. Hypothesis of the dispersal for distance |
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125 | (1) |
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1.2. Recent studies of selective advantages of myrmecochory |
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126 | (1) |
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2. Ant nests as microhabitats for myrmecochores |
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126 | (4) |
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2.1. Viola odorata plants on nests of Formica polyctena ants |
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127 | (2) |
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2.2. Advantages for plants growing on ant nests |
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129 | (1) |
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3. Decrease of seedling density as a selective advantage of myrmecochory |
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130 | (6) |
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3.1. Spatial distribution of seedlings in Corydalis bulbosa |
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131 | (3) |
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3.1.1. First year of the experiment |
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131 | (2) |
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3.1.2. Second year of the experiment |
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133 | (1) |
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3.2. Effect of ants on seed dispersal of Corydalis bulbosa |
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134 | (2) |
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4. Effect of myrmecochory on the spatial distribution and mortality rate of seedlings in Asarum europaeum |
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136 | (4) |
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4.1. Spatial distribution and seedling mortality |
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138 | (1) |
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4.2. Effect of ants on seed dispersal in A. europaeum |
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139 | (1) |
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140 | (3) |
| Chapter 10. Interactions between ants and non-myrmecochorous plants |
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143 | (10) |
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1. Interactions between the non-myrmecochore Galium aparine and Formica polyctena ants |
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144 | (5) |
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1.1. Removal and transport of diaspores |
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144 | (1) |
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1.2. Dynamics of seedling density and plant growth |
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145 | (4) |
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2. Asymmetry of interactions between non-myrmecochores and ants |
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149 | (2) |
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2.1. Plant concentration on the nest mounds |
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149 | (1) |
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2.2. Why do ants remove and transport diaspores without elaiosomes? |
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149 | (1) |
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2.3. Character of interactions between non-myrmecochores and ants |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (2) |
| Chapter 11. Methods for studying myrmecochory |
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153 | (20) |
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153 | (1) |
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2. Plant species covered by the experiments |
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154 | (3) |
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2.1.Obligate myrmecochores |
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155 | (1) |
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2.2. Facultative myrmecochores |
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156 | (1) |
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156 | (1) |
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3. Ant species used in the experiments |
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157 | (1) |
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157 | (13) |
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4.1. Morphology and anatomy |
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157 | (1) |
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4.2. Field observations and experiments |
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158 | (11) |
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4.2.1. Studies on the myrmecochorous syndrome |
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158 | (1) |
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4.2.2. «Cafeteria» experiments |
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159 | (1) |
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4.2.3. Factors influencing diaspore removal rate |
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160 | (2) |
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4.2.4. Effect of the ant species composition on diaspore removal |
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162 | (2) |
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4.2.5. Diaspore transport by ants |
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164 | (1) |
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4.2.6. Plant diaspore flows on ant territories |
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165 | (1) |
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4.2.7. Secondary relocation of diaspores by ants |
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165 | (1) |
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4.2.8. Ecological aspects of the myrmecochory |
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165 | (3) |
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4.2.9. Interactions between ants and non-myrmecochorous plants |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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170 | (3) |
| Conclusions and outlook |
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173 | (4) |
| Glossary |
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177 | (8) |
| References |
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185 | (16) |
| Appendix |
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201 | (16) |
| Index |
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217 | |
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