Biopolymers from Renewable Resources,9783540635673

Biopolymers from Renewable Resources

by
ISBN13: 9783540635673
ISBN10: 354063567X
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 1998-08-01
Publisher(s): Springer Verlag
List Price: $419.99

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Summary

The beneficial aspects of utilizing polymers from renewable resources, when considering synthesis, processing, disposal, and overall material lifecycle issues, suggests that this will continue to be an important and growing area of interest. The focus on greener chemistries in industry can be in part satisfied by exploring the range of polymers available from Nature. The information for each type of polymer includes aspects of synthesis, processing and properties. The wide range of polymers and their properties, including polyamides, polysaccharides, polyesters and polyphenols, among others, illustrates this diversity of materials. The reader will have a single volume which provides a resource from which to gain initial insights into this diverse field and from which key references and contacts can be drawn.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Biopolymers from Renewable Resources
1(29)
D.L. Kaplan
1.1 Introduction
1(2)
1.1.1 Natural Functions
1(1)
1.1.2 Benefits
1(1)
1.1.3 Limitations
2(1)
1.1.4 Interface Between Biology and Materials Science
2(1)
1.2 Polysaccharides
3(13)
1.2.1 Polysaccharides (Plant, Algal)
3(7)
1.2.2 Polysaccharides (Animal)
10(1)
1.2.3 Polysaccharides (Fungal)
11(1)
1.2.4 Polysaccharides (Bacterial)
12(4)
1.3 Proteins
16(4)
1.4 Polyesters
20(2)
1.5 Lipids/Surfactants
22(1)
1.6 Specialty Polymers
23(2)
1.7 Conclusions
25(1)
1.8 References
26(4)
CHAPTER 2 Starch: Properties and Materials Applications
30(17)
R.L. Shogrun
2.1 Introduction
30(1)
2.2 Sources of Starch
30(1)
2.3 Structure and Composition
31(2)
2.4 Methods of Isolation and Characterization
33(1)
2.5 Properties
34(1)
2.6 Chemically Modified Starches
35(1)
2.7 Processing Methods
36(1)
2.8 Properties of Processed Starch
37(3)
2.9 Applications
40(3)
2.9.1 Food
40(1)
2.9.2 Paper
41(1)
2.9.3 Textiles, Adhesives, and Other Uses
41(1)
2.9.4 Biodegradable Plastics
42(1)
2.10 References
43(4)
CHAPTER 3 Polysaccharides -- Cellulose
47(49)
R.D. Gilbert
J.F. Kadla
3.1 Introduction
47(1)
3.2 Chemical Composition and Structure
47(2)
3.3 Conformational Aspects
49(1)
3.4 Hydrogen Bonding
49(2)
3.5 Molecular Weight
51(1)
3.6 Crystallinity
51(1)
3.7 Cellulose Polymorphs
52(3)
3.8 Cellulose I
55(6)
3.8.1 Intra-Molecular Hydrogen Bonding
55(1)
3.8.2 Crystal Structure of Cellulose I
56(2)
3.8.3 Cellulose I(Alpha) and I(Bita)
58(3)
3.9 Cellulose II
61(3)
3.9.1 Crystal Structure of Cellulose II
61(1)
3.9.2 Hydrogen-Bonding
62(2)
3.10 Fibrillar Structure
64(1)
3.11 Synthetic Cellulose
65(1)
3.12 Cellulosic Mesophases
66(7)
3.12.1 Introduction
66(3)
3.12.2 Liquid Crystal Solutions of Cellulose
69(3)
3.12.3 Liquid Crystalline Cellulose Derivatives
72(1)
3.12.4 Thermotropic Cellulose Derivatives
72(1)
3.13 Chemical Modification
73(16)
3.13.1 Introduction
73(7)
3.13.2 Cellulose Esters
80(2)
3.13.3 Cellulose Ethers
82(4)
3.13.4 Cellulose Sulfate Esters
86(1)
3.13.5 Reduction of Cellulose
87(1)
3.13.6 Homogeneous Derivatization
87(1)
3.13.7 Cellulose Graft Copolymers
88(1)
3.14 Biotechnology Routes to Cellulose
89(1)
3.15 References
90(6)
CHAPTER 4 Polysaccharides: Chitin and Chitosan: Chemistry and Technology of Their Use As Structural Materials
96(23)
S.M. Hudson
C. Smith
4.1 Introduction
96(1)
4.2 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan
97(3)
4.3 The Structure and Composition of Chitin and Chitosan
100(4)
4.3.1 Structure
100(2)
4.3.2 Polymorphs
102(2)
4.4 Methods of Isolation and Characterization
104(3)
4.4.1 Isolation of Chitin
104(2)
4.4.2 Degree of N-Acetylation
106(1)
4.4.3 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution
107(1)
4.5 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Chitin and Chitosan
107(2)
4.5.1 Solution Properties
108(1)
4.5.2 Biological Properties
108(1)
4.6 Chemical Modifications of Chitin and Chitosan
109(1)
4.7 Processing and Physical Forms of Materials Based on Chitin and Chitosan
110(4)
4.7.1 Fibers
110(2)
4.7.2 Films
112(1)
4.7.3 Other Physical Forms
113(1)
4.8 Products and Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
114(1)
4.9 References
115(4)
CHAPTER 5 Alginates
119(25)
D.F. Day
5.1 Introduction
119(1)
5.2 Sources of Biopolymer -- Renewable Sources
120(4)
5.2.1 Seaweed Alginates
120(1)
5.2.2 Bacterial Alginates
121(3)
5.3 Structure and Composition
124(3)
5.3.1 Seaweed Alginates
124(2)
5.3.2 Bacterial Alginates
126(1)
5.4 Methods of Isolation, Purification, and Characterization
127(3)
5.4.1 Seaweed Alginate
127(1)
5.4.2 Bacterial Alginates
128(2)
5.5 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties
130(4)
5.5.1 Seaweed Alginate
130(2)
5.5.2 Alginate Gels
132(2)
5.6 Alginate As an Ion Exchanger
134(2)
5.6.1 Seaweed Alginate
134(1)
5.6.2 Bacterial Alginate
135(1)
5.7 Chemical or Other Modifications
136(2)
5.7.1 Seaweed Polymer
136(1)
5.7.2 Bacterial Polymer
137(1)
5.8 Processing of the Biopolymer
138(2)
5.9 Production or Potential Applications
140(2)
5.9.1 Seaweed Alginate
140(1)
5.9.2 Bacterial Alginate
140(2)
5.10 References
142(2)
CHAPTER 6 Soy Protein As Biopolymer
144(33)
Y.T.-P. Ly
L.A. Johnson
J. Jane
6.1 Introduction
144(1)
6.2 Production of Soy Protein
144(6)
6.3 Structure and Composition of Soy Protein
150(3)
6.4 Physicochemical Properties of Soy Protein
153(5)
6.4.1 Water Binding Capacity
153(1)
6.4.2 Water Holding Capacity
154(1)
6.4.3 Swelling
155(1)
6.4.4 Solubility
155(1)
6.4.5 Viscosity
156(1)
6.4.6 Gelation
157(1)
6.5 Processing of Soy Protein for Plastics
158(7)
6.5.1 Effect of Plasticizers
159(5)
6.5.2 Effect of Temperature
164(1)
6.6 Properties of Soy Protein Plastics
165(7)
6.6.1 Native Soy Proteins
166(1)
6.6.2 Acid Treatment
167(1)
6.6.3 Cross-Linking
167(1)
6.6.4 Acetylation
168(1)
6.6.5 Esterification
168(3)
6.6.6 Graft Copolymerization
171(1)
6.6.7 Incorporation of Other Biopolymers
172(1)
6.7 Industrial Applications of Soy Protein
172(2)
6.7.1 Historical and Current Status
172(2)
6.7.2 Soy Protein for Biodegradable Plastics
174(1)
6.8 References
174(3)
CHAPTER 7 Protein-Based Materials
177(18)
M.M. Butler
K.P. McGrath
7.1 Introduction
177(1)
7.2 Chemical Synthesis of Polypeptides
178(2)
7.2.1 Polycondensation
178(1)
7.2.2 Polymerization of N-Carboxyanhydrides
179(1)
7.3 Biosynthetic Production of Polypeptides
180(4)
7.3.1 Strategies in Genetic Design
180(1)
7.3.2 Expression of Target Proteins
181(3)
7.4 Useful Classes of Protein Materials
184(8)
7.4.1 Fiber-Forming Proteins
184(3)
7.4.2 Elastomeric Proteins
187(3)
7.4.3 Adhesive Protein Materials
190(2)
7.5 Opportunities and Limitations
192(1)
7.6 References
192(3)
CHAPTER 8 Bacterial Gamma-Poly(glutamic Acid)
195(25)
R.A. Gross
8.1 Introduction and Background
195(1)
8.2 Biological Role of Gamma-PGA Biosynthesis
196(1)
8.3 Purification from Culture Broth
197(1)
8.4 Analyses of Gamma-PGA by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
197(2)
8.5 Fermentation Methods: Medium Formulations, Nutritional Requirements and Strain Degeneration
199(5)
8.5.1 Metals and Nitrogen
199(1)
8.5.2 Gamma-PGA Formation by B. licheniformis 9945 a on `Medium E'
200(3)
8.5.3 Other Production Strains, Media Requirements and Carbon Sources
203(1)
8.5.4 Degeneracy to a Non-Gamma-PGA Producing Variant
204(1)
8.6 Stereochemical Composition of Gamma-PGA
204(3)
8.6.1 Differences As a Function of the Production Strain
204(1)
8.6.2 Effects of Mn (II) and Other Divalent Metal Salts
205(2)
8.7 Molecular Weight of Gamma-PGAs
207(2)
8.8 Biochemical Pathways of Gamma-PGA Biosynthesis
209(3)
8.9 Gamma-PGA Degrading Enzymes
212(2)
8.10 Modification of Gamma-PGA
214(1)
8.11 Physical Properties and Applications
215(2)
8.12 References
217(3)
CHAPTER 9 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
220(29)
P.J. Hocking
R.H. Marchessault
9.1 Introduction
220(1)
9.2 History
220(2)
9.3 Biological Production
222(6)
9.3.1 Biosynthesis of PHB and PHBV
222(2)
9.3.2 Other Bacterial PHAs
224(2)
9.3.3 Isolation
226(1)
9.3.4 Commercial Production
227(1)
9.4 Properties
228(4)
9.4.1 Physical Properties
228(1)
9.4.2 Crystal Structure
229(3)
9.5 Degradation
232(5)
9.5.1 Intracellular Biodegradation
232(2)
9.5.2 Extracellular Biodegradation
234(1)
9.5.3 Thermal Degradation
235(1)
9.5.4 Hydrolytic Degradation
235(1)
9.5.5 Environmental Degradation
236(1)
9.6 Applications
237(3)
9.7 Economics
240(1)
9.8 Genetic Engineering
241(1)
9.9 Synthetic PHAs and Blends
242(1)
9.10 Conclusion
243(1)
9.11 References
244(5)
CHAPTER 10 Surfactants and Fatty Acids: Plant Oils
249(32)
S.F. Thames
M.D. Blanton
S. Mendon
R. Subramenian
H. Yu
10.1 Chinese Melon Oil (CMO)
249(6)
10.1.1 Introduction
249(1)
10.1.2 Fatty Acid Composition
249(1)
10.1.3 Characterization
250(4)
10.1.4 Epoxidation
254(1)
10.1.5 Chinese Melon Oil's Future Prospects
254(1)
10.2 Crambe Oil
255(3)
10.2.1 Introduction
255(1)
10.2.2 Fatty Acid Composition and Properties
255(2)
10.2.3 Derivatives of Crambe Oil
257(1)
10.3 Lesquerella Oil
258(9)
10.3.1 Introduction
258(1)
10.3.2 Fatty Acid Compositions
259(1)
10.3.3 Oil Properties
260(1)
10.3.4 Significance of Lesquerella Oil Research
260(1)
10.3.5 Dehydrated Lesquerella Oil (DLO)
261(1)
10.3.6 Polyesters Derived from Lesquerella Oil
262(1)
10.3.7 Lesquerella Oil Acrylates
263(2)
10.3.8 Lesquerella Oil Alkoxylates
265(2)
10.4 Soybean Oil
267(3)
10.4.1 Introduction
267(1)
10.4.2 Oil Composition and Properties
267(1)
10.4.3 Polyesters
268(1)
10.4.4 Urethane Polymers
268(1)
10.4.5 Epoxidized Oil
269(1)
10.4.6 Epoxy Oil
270(1)
10.4.7 Copolymers
270(1)
10.5 Tung Oil
270(4)
10.5.1 Introduction
270(1)
10.5.2 Composition and Properties
271(1)
10.5.3 Modification of Eleostearic Acid (ESA)
272(2)
10.5.4 Applications
274(1)
10.6 Vernonia Oil
274(4)
10.6.1 Introduction
274(1)
10.6.2 Composition and Properties
274(1)
10.6.3 Applications
275(1)
10.6.4 Modification of Epoxy Resins
276(1)
10.6.5 Ultraviolet Cure Systems
276(1)
10.6.6 Vernonia Oil in Powder Coatings
276(1)
10.6.7 Epoxidation of Vernonia Oil
277(1)
10.7 References
278(3)
CHAPTER 11 Surface Active Polymers from the Genus Acinetobacter
281(11)
E. Rosenberg
E.Z. Ron
11.1 Introduction
281(1)
11.2 Production and Purification of Surface Active Polymers
282(1)
11.3 Genetics
282(1)
11.4 Dispersants of Oil-in-Water -- Bioemulsifiers
283(4)
11.4.1 A. calcoaceticus RAG-1 Emulsan:
284(1)
11.4.2 The Emulsan of A. calcoaceticus BD4
285(1)
11.4.3 Alasan
286(1)
11.4.4 Other Acinetobacter Emulsifiers
287(1)
11.5 Potential Applications
287(1)
11.6 Biodispersan -- Dispersion of Solid Particles
288(2)
11.7 Potential Applications for Biodispersan
290(1)
11.8 References
291(1)
CHAPTER 12 Lignin
292(31)
D.S. Argyropoulos
S.B. Menachem
12.1 Occurrence and Role of Lignin
292(2)
12.1.1 Wood Structure
293(1)
12.2 Biosynthesis
294(9)
12.2.1 The Synthesis of Lignin Precursors
294(2)
12.2.2 The Dehydrogenation of the Precursors
296(1)
12.2.3 The Radical Polymerization
297(4)
12.2.4 The Lignin-Carbohydrate Connectivity
301(2)
12.3 Lignin Architecture
303(4)
12.3.1 The Gel Degradation Theory
304(1)
12.3.2 Possibility of Order in Lignin
305(2)
12.4 Solution Properties of Lignin
307(2)
12.4.1 Lignin Associative Interactions
308(1)
12.4.2 Lignin Polydispersity
308(1)
12.5 Lignin Preparations
309(1)
12.5.1 Laboratory Lignin Preparations
309(1)
12.5.2 Commercially Produced Lignins
310(1)
12.6 Methods of Lignin Analysis
310(4)
12.6.1 Degradative Methods
310(2)
12.6.2 Non-Degradative Methods
312(2)
12.7 References
314(9)
CHAPTER 13 Natural Rubber from Plants
323(32)
R.A. Backhaus
13.1 Introduction and History of Natural Rubber
323(2)
13.2 Sources of Natural Rubber
325(4)
13.2.1 Rubber Producing Plants
325(1)
13.2.2 Cellular Sources of Rubber Biosynthesis
326(3)
13.3 Structure and Composition of Natural Rubber
329(5)
13.4 Methods of Rubber Isolation, Purification, and Characterization
334(6)
13.4.1 Hevea Rubber
334(5)
13.4.2 Guayule Rubber
339(1)
13.5 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Rubber Particles from Plant Cells
340(4)
13.6 Chemical or Other Modifications of Natural Rubber -- Nature of the Reactions, Effect on Properties
344(1)
13.7 Processing of Natural Rubber
345(2)
13.8 Properties and Testing of Raw and Processed Rubber
347(2)
13.9 New Products or Potential Applications
349(1)
13.10 Conclusion
349(1)
13.11 References
350(5)
CHAPTER 14 Failure Properties of Guayule Rubber
355(12)
P.G. Santangelo
C.M. Roland
14.1 Introduction
355(1)
14.2 Historical Background
355(2)
14.3 Physical Properties
357(1)
14.4 Intrinsic Flaw Size
358(3)
14.5 Crystallization
361(2)
14.6 Barrier Performance
363(1)
14.7 Summary
364(1)
14.8 References
364(3)
CHAPTER 15 High Molecular Weight Polylactic Acid Polymers
367(46)
M.H. Hartmann
15.1 Introduction
367(1)
15.2 Lactic Acid Fermentation, Synthesis, and Purification
367(3)
15.3 Polymer Synthesis
370(26)
15.3.1 Condensation Polymerization of Lactic Acid
370(4)
15.3.2 Azeotropic Dehydration Condensation of Lactic Acid
374(5)
15.3.3 Lactide Production and Purification
379(3)
15.3.4 Catalysis, Kinetics, and Mechanism of Lactide Ring Opening Polymerizations
382(13)
15.3.5 Polymer Thermal Stabilization
395(1)
15.4 Polymer Physical, Mechanical and Crystallization Properties
396(3)
15.5 Copolymers and Blends
399(5)
15.6 Crosslinking
404(1)
15.7 Conclusion
405(1)
15.8 References
405(8)
Subject Index 413

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