Foreword |
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xvii | |
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Preface |
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xix | |
Acknowledgments |
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xxi | |
PART I OVERVIEW |
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1 | (30) |
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3 | (7) |
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Synopsis of Reliability Trends and Aim of Book |
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3 | (2) |
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Background of Military and Industrial Stress Testing Practices |
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5 | (1) |
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Overview of the AST Handbook |
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6 | (4) |
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9 | (1) |
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Principles of Stress Testing |
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10 | (21) |
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Rationale for Stress Testing |
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11 | (8) |
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11 | (1) |
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AST and Accelerated Testing |
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12 | (2) |
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AST and the Bath-Tub Curve |
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14 | (1) |
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Bimodal Product Strength Distribution |
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14 | (3) |
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Relevance of AST Failures |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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Stress Testing Technical and Implementation Issues |
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19 | (8) |
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19 | (1) |
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Other Forms of Stress Testing |
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20 | (1) |
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Stress Stimuli and Flaws Precipitated by Them |
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21 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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Stress Level Determination |
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23 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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Fault Simulation and Detection Issues |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (2) |
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27 | (4) |
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27 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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Optimizing the Application of AST |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (2) |
PART II PROCESS AND GUIDELINES |
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31 | (60) |
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Stress Testing Program: Generic Processes |
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33 | (11) |
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Overview of the Stress Testing Strategy |
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33 | (3) |
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36 | (1) |
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Design Stress Testing (D-AST) |
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36 | (2) |
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36 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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Take Corrective Action (C) |
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37 | (1) |
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Manufacturing Qualification Stress Testing (MQ-AST) |
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38 | (2) |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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Take Corrective Action (C) |
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39 | (1) |
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Develop Manufacturing AST Regimen (D) |
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39 | (1) |
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Demonstrate Safety of the AST Regimen (E) |
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40 | (1) |
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Perform Manufacturing AST (F) |
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40 | (1) |
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Periodic Qualification Stress Testing (PQ-AST) |
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40 | (1) |
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Production Sampling Stress Test (PS-AST) |
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41 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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Develop Manufacturing AST Regimen (D) |
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41 | (1) |
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Perform Manufacturing AST Regimen (F) |
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42 | (1) |
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Take Corrective Action (C) |
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42 | (1) |
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Optimize Manufacturing AST Regimen (G) |
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43 | (1) |
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Full Production Stress Testing (FP-AST) |
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43 | (1) |
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Stress Testing Program Subprocesses |
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44 | (22) |
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Plan Program Subprocess (A) |
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44 | (6) |
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Form Team and Develop AST Strategy |
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44 | (2) |
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Review and Issue AST Strategy |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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Review and Issue AST Plan |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (2) |
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Baseline Product Subprocess (B) |
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50 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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Take Corrective Action Subprocess (C) |
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51 | (4) |
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51 | (2) |
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Suggest and Review Corrective Actions |
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53 | (1) |
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Develop AST Verification Plan for Corrective Action |
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54 | (1) |
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Issue Summary of Lessons Learned |
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55 | (1) |
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Develop Manufacturing Stress Testing Regimen Subprocess (D) |
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55 | (2) |
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Determine the Form of Product to be Tested |
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55 | (1) |
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Determine What Stress Stimuli Are Effective |
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56 | (1) |
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Demonstrate Safety of the Stress Testing Regimen Subprocess (E) |
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57 | (4) |
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Develop AST Safety Strategy |
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58 | (1) |
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Write AST Safety Qualification Plan |
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58 | (1) |
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Execute Safety Qualification Plan |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (1) |
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Certify Safety of Candidate AST Regimen |
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61 | (1) |
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Perform Manufacturing Stress Testing Subprocess (F) |
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61 | (1) |
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61 | (1) |
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Optimize the Manufacturing Stress Testing Regimen Subprocess (G) |
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62 | (4) |
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Analyze Manufacturing AST Regimen Data |
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62 | (2) |
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Select Manufacturing AST Mode or Regimen |
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64 | (1) |
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Develop Evaluation Plan for Trial AST Regimen |
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64 | (1) |
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Conduct Evaluation of Trial AST Regimen |
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65 | (1) |
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Guidelines for Design and Manufacturing Stress Testing |
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66 | (25) |
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66 | (2) |
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68 | (1) |
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Sample Size Selection for Design AST |
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69 | (1) |
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Typical Stress Stimuli and Associated Product Flaws |
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70 | (1) |
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Recommended Stress Levels |
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71 | (6) |
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Baseline Product Test Procedures |
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77 | (6) |
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Failure Mode Analysis and Root Cause Analysis |
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83 | (4) |
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Failure Types and Modes Found During Stress Testing |
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85 | (2) |
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Corrective Action and Product Ruggedization |
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87 | (4) |
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87 | (3) |
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90 | (1) |
PART III THEORY |
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91 | (44) |
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Economics and Optimization |
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93 | (16) |
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Guidelines for Optimizing Manufacturing Stress Testing |
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93 | (4) |
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93 | (1) |
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Environment for Stress Testing |
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94 | (1) |
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95 | (1) |
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Effectiveness of the Stress Regimen |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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Types of Failures Revisited |
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98 | (1) |
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Distribution of Environmental Stresses |
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98 | (2) |
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100 | (1) |
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101 | (1) |
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Requirement on Service-Life Fraction Failed |
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101 | (1) |
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Requirement on Product Strength Distribution |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (2) |
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1 in 100 Service-Life Fraction Failed Requirements |
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104 | (1) |
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1 in 1000 Service-Life Fraction Failed Requirements |
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104 | (1) |
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Economic Issues and Optimization |
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105 | (1) |
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Reduction in Field Failure Rate |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (18) |
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What Is Reliability Growth? |
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109 | (1) |
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How Many Units Must Be Tested? |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (1) |
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Failure Mode Distribution |
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111 | (7) |
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Mathematical Substantiation |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (4) |
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How Are These Units Acquired? |
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118 | (2) |
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118 | (1) |
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119 | (1) |
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The Success of Failures Attained by Stress Testing |
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120 | (4) |
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120 | (1) |
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Product-Specific Stresses and Stress Levels |
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120 | (1) |
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Relevance of Stress Failures |
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121 | (1) |
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Addressing All Failure Modes |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (2) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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Overview of the Failure Analysis Process for Electrical Components |
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127 | (8) |
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Definition of Failure Analysis |
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127 | (1) |
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The Benefits of Performing Failure Analysis |
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127 | (1) |
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Overview of the Failure Analysis Process for Electrical Components |
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128 | (2) |
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128 | (1) |
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Examine the Component Package with a Low-Power Microscope |
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128 | (1) |
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128 | (1) |
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Nondestructive Evaluation |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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Examine the Interior of the Package and the Die Surface |
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129 | (1) |
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Conduct a Physical Analysis |
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129 | (1) |
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Evaluate the Data and Come to a Conclusion |
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129 | (1) |
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Develop a Corrective Action Recommendation |
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129 | (1) |
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Write and Issue a Report (as Required by the Customer) |
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130 | (1) |
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Archive the Data and Samples |
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130 | (1) |
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Follow Up on Customer's Corrective Action Results |
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130 | (1) |
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Tools for Component Failure Analysis |
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130 | (1) |
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Basic (Tools that Every Lab Needs) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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Personnel for Component Failure Analysis |
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131 | (1) |
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Challenges Facing Failure Analysts in the Future |
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131 | (1) |
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What the Customer Can Do to Optimize the Failure Analysis Process |
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132 | (3) |
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132 | (3) |
PART IV EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES |
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135 | (92) |
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Accelerated Stress Testing Equipment and Techniques |
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137 | (18) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (5) |
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Operating Temperature Range |
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138 | (1) |
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Temperature Rate of Change |
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138 | (2) |
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Mechanical Refrigeration versus Liquid Nitrogen (LN2) Cooling |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (5) |
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Issues for Repetitive Shock Machines Using Pneumatic Vibrators |
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144 | (1) |
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Multi-Axial Considerations for Repetitive Shock Machines |
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145 | (2) |
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Table Resonances for Repetitive Shock Machines |
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147 | (1) |
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gRMS versus peak G Stress |
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147 | (1) |
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Combined Thermal and Vibration Equipment |
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147 | (1) |
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Ancillary Mechanical Equipment for Stress Testing |
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148 | (4) |
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Fixturing for Vibration Stressing |
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148 | (1) |
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Printed Wiring Board Card Cages Used for Stress Testing |
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149 | (3) |
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Environmental Analysis Equipment Used for Stress Testing |
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152 | (1) |
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Electrical Test Equipment and Software Used for Stress Testing |
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153 | (1) |
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AST Test Equipment Hardware |
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153 | (1) |
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AST Test Equipment Software |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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Vibration and Shock Inputs Identify Some Failure Modes |
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155 | (27) |
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155 | (1) |
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155 | (9) |
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155 | (2) |
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Vibration and Shock Measurement---Units |
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157 | (2) |
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Vibration and Shock Sensors (Field and Laboratory) |
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159 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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Display and Recording Instruments |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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Controllable Sources of Vibration and Mechanical Shock |
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164 | (6) |
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Electrodynamic (Electromagnetic) Shakers |
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164 | (1) |
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164 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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Alternating Current Generates Force |
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165 | (1) |
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165 | (2) |
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Vertical or Horizontal Thrusting |
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167 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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Delivering Adequate Alternating Current for Shaker Driver Coil |
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167 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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Importance of Low Distortion |
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168 | (1) |
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Direct Current for Shaker Field Winding |
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168 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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Controls for Sine Vibration Testing |
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169 | (1) |
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Controls for Random Vibration Testing |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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Controls for Shock Testing |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Shock, Sine, and Random Vibration |
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170 | (6) |
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170 | (2) |
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Sinusoidal Vibration and Its Effects |
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172 | (1) |
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Random Vibration and Its Effects |
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173 | (1) |
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Amplitude Probability Density |
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174 | (2) |
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Acceleration Spectral Density |
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176 | (1) |
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176 | (2) |
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Repetitive Shock Machines for Multi-Axis Stress Testing |
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178 | (1) |
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Using Random Vibration and Repetitive Shock for Stress Testing |
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178 | (4) |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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Is Our Production Screening Damaging Good Hardware? |
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180 | (2) |
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Relative Effectiveness of Thermal Cycling Versus Burn-In |
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182 | (7) |
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182 | (1) |
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Results for Thermal Cycling Alone |
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183 | (1) |
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Intermittents and First Events |
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183 | (2) |
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Thermal Cycling versus Burn-In |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (2) |
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188 | (1) |
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Accelerated Qualification of Electronic Assemblies Under Combined Temperature Cycling and Vibration Environments: Is Miner's Hypothesis Valid? |
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189 | (14) |
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190 | (1) |
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Combined Temperature and Vibration Accelerated Life Tests |
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191 | (3) |
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The Macroscopic Incremental Damage Superposition Approach (Macro-IDSA) |
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194 | (3) |
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The Micromechanistic Incremental Damage Superposition Approach (Micro-IDSA) |
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197 | (3) |
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200 | (3) |
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201 | (1) |
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201 | (2) |
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Liquid Environmental Stress Testing (Lest) |
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203 | (13) |
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Advantages of Liquid Environmental Stress Testing |
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203 | (1) |
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Liquid Environmental Stress Testing Facility |
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204 | (4) |
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Overview of Lest Facility Features |
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204 | (4) |
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Thermal Considerations in Liquid Environmental Stress Testing |
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208 | (6) |
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214 | (2) |
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214 | (2) |
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Safety Qualification of Stress Testing |
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216 | (11) |
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Stress Testing Safety Qualification Program |
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217 | (6) |
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Generic Component Qualification |
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219 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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Discrete Component Qualification |
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220 | (1) |
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Specific Code Qualification |
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220 | (1) |
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The Qualification Process |
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221 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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222 | (1) |
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Product Destruct Limit Testing |
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223 | (1) |
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Safety Qualification Programs for Other Types of Stresses |
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223 | (4) |
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224 | (3) |
PART V BEST PRACTICES CASE STUDIES IN COMPUTER, COMMUNICATIONS, AND OTHER INDUSTRIES |
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227 | (111) |
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Production AST with Computers Using the Taguchi Method |
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229 | (11) |
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229 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (2) |
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230 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (1) |
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Vibration Screen Determination |
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231 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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Vibration Stress Duration |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (2) |
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Test Process Product Flow |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (2) |
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235 | (1) |
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Response Variable Results and Conclusions of the Taguchi Experiment |
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236 | (1) |
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Triaxial Random Vibration |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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Taguchi Method Conclusion |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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Design AST With Vendor Electronics |
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240 | (13) |
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240 | (1) |
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The Test-Analyze-Correct-Verify Process |
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240 | (2) |
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Accelerated Reliability Techniques (ART) |
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242 | (2) |
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243 | (1) |
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Broad Spectrum Stress Portfolio |
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243 | (1) |
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Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Power Supply Example |
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244 | (7) |
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251 | (2) |
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252 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
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Design and Production AST With Power Supplies |
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253 | (10) |
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253 | (1) |
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253 | (1) |
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STRIFE in New Product Development (Design AST) |
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253 | (4) |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (1) |
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256 | (1) |
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256 | (1) |
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Conclusions with STRIFE in Product Development (Design AST) |
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257 | (1) |
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ESS in Manufacturing (Production AST) |
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257 | (4) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (1) |
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Conclusions with ESS in Manufacturing (Production AST) |
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260 | (1) |
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261 | (2) |
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262 | (1) |
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Design and Production AST with Computers |
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263 | (6) |
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263 | (1) |
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A Massively Parallel RISC-Based Server |
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263 | (1) |
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263 | (5) |
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264 | (4) |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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Qualifications and Production Sampling AST with Printed Circuit Boards |
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269 | (13) |
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269 | (1) |
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270 | (1) |
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Ongoing Monitoring of the Production Process |
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271 | (2) |
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273 | (1) |
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274 | (1) |
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Results of the Initial Testing |
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275 | (3) |
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278 | (4) |
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280 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (1) |
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Manufacturing AST with Telecommunication Products |
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282 | (18) |
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282 | (2) |
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EST During Product Design (Design AST) |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (3) |
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Techniques of Production EST (AST) |
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286 | (1) |
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FMA and Corrective Action |
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287 | (1) |
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Production EST (AST) Studies at AT&T |
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288 | (3) |
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Facilities Hardware and Software |
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289 | (2) |
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291 | (1) |
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Results of the Thermal Cycling Studies |
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291 | (9) |
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292 | (1) |
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292 | (2) |
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294 | (1) |
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294 | (2) |
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296 | (1) |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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298 | (2) |
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Production AST with Computer Disks |
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300 | (8) |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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302 | (1) |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (1) |
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304 | (1) |
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A Look at the Failure Mechanisms |
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304 | (2) |
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306 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (30) |
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Introduction to Benchmarking |
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308 | (9) |
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310 | (3) |
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313 | (3) |
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316 | (1) |
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The AST Benchmarking Process |
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317 | (8) |
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Benchmarking Partnerships---Otis Elevator Company and United Technologies/3Com Corporation (U.S. Robotics) |
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325 | (2) |
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Benchmarking AST Survey Data |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (9) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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Appendix A Environmental Stress Screening Questionnaire---1997 |
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330 | (3) |
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Appendix B Environmental Stress Screening Questionnaire---1996 & 1997 Results |
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333 | (5) |
Glossary of Stress Testing Terminology |
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338 | (2) |
Bibliography |
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340 | (25) |
Index |
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365 | (4) |
Epilogue |
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369 | (2) |
About the Editors |
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371 | |